Additional insights into peacebuilding are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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What it Means to Build a Lasting Peace
It should be noted at the outset that there are two distinct ways to understand peacebuilding. According the United Nations (UN) document An Agenda for Peace [1], peacebuilding consists of a wide range of activities associated with capacity building, reconciliation, and societal transformation. Peacebuilding is a long-term process that occurs after violent conflict has slowed down or come to a halt. Thus, it is the phase of the peace process that takes place after peacemaking and peacekeeping.
Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs), on the other hand, understand peacebuilding as an umbrella concept that encompasses not only long-term transformative efforts, but also peacemaking.and peacekeeping. In this view, peacebuilding includes early warning and response efforts, violence prevention, advocacy work, civilian and military peacekeeping, military intervention, humanitarian assistance, ceasefire agreements, and the establishment of peace zones.
In the interests of keeping these essays a reasonable length, this essay primarily focuses on the narrower use of the term "peacebuilding." For more information about other phases of the peace process, readers should refer to the knowledge base essays about violence prevention, peacemaking and peacekeeping, as well as the essay on peace processes which is what we use as our "umbrella" term.
In this narrower sense, peacebuilding is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building, and political as well as economic transformation.[1] This consists of a set of physical, social, and structural initiatives that are often an integral part of post-conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation.
It is generally agreed that the central task of peacebuilding is to create positive peace, a "stable social equilibrium in which the surfacing of new disputes does not escalate into violence and war."[2] Sustainable peace is characterized by the absence of physical and structural violence, the elimination of discrimination, and self-sustainability.[3] Moving towards this sort of environment goes beyond problem solving or conflict management. Peacebuilding initiatives try to fix the core problems that underlie the conflict and change the patterns of interaction of the involved parties.[4] They aim to move a given population from a condition of extreme vulnerability and dependency to one of self-sufficiency and well being.[5]
To further understand the notion of peacebuilding, many contrast it with the more traditional strategies of peacemaking and peacekeeping. Peacemaking is the diplomatic effort to end the violence between the conflicting parties, move them towards nonviolent dialogue, and eventually reach a peace agreement. Peacekeeping, on the other hand, is a third-party intervention (often, but not always done by military forces) to assist parties in transitioning from violent conflict to peace by separating the fighting parties and keeping them apart. These peacekeeping operations not only provide security, but also facilitate other non-military initiatives.[6]
Some draw a distinction between post-conflict peacebuilding and long-term peacebuilding. Post-conflict peacebuilding is connected to peacekeeping, and often involves demobilization and reintegration programs, as well as immediate reconstruction needs.[7] Meeting immediate needs and handling crises is no doubt crucial. But while peacemaking and peacekeeping processes are an important part of peace transitions, they are not enough in and of themselves to meet longer-term needs and build a lasting peace.
Long-term peacebuilding techniques are designed to fill this gap, and to address the underlying substantive issues that brought about conflict. Various transformation techniques aim to move parties away from confrontation and violence, and towards political and economic participation, peaceful relationships, and social harmony.[8]
This longer-term perspective is crucial to future violence prevention and the promotion of a more peaceful future. Thinking about the future involves articulating desirable structural, systemic, and relationship goals. These might include sustainable economic development, self-sufficiency, equitable social structures that meet human needs, and building positive relationships.[9]
Peacebuilding measures also aim to prevent conflict from reemerging. Through the creation of mechanisms that enhance cooperation and dialogue among different identity groups, these measures can help parties manage their conflict of interests through peaceful means. This might include building institutions that provide procedures and mechanisms for effectively handling and resolving conflict.[10] For example, societies can build fair courts, capacities for labor negotiation, systems of civil society reconciliation, and a stable electoral process.[11] Such designing of new dispute resolution systems is an important part of creating a lasting peace.
In short, parties must replace the spiral of violence and destruction with a spiral of peace and development, and create an environment conducive to self-sustaining and durable peace.[12] The creation of such an environment has three central dimensions: addressing the underlying causes of conflict, repairing damaged relationships and dealing with psychological trauma at the individual level. Each of these dimensions relies on different strategies and techniques.
The Structural Dimension: Addressing Root Causes
The structural dimension of peacebuilding focuses on the social conditions that foster violent conflict. Many note that stable peace must be built on social, economic, and political foundations that serve the needs of the populace.[13] In many cases, crises arise out of systemic roots. These root causes are typically complex, but include skewed land distribution, environmental degradation, and unequal political representation.[14] If these social problems are not addressed, there can be no lasting peace.
Thus, in order to establish durable peace, parties must analyze the structural causes of the conflict and initiate social structural change. The promotion of substantive and procedural justice through structural means typically involves institution building and the strengthening of civil society.
Avenues of political and economic transformation include social structural change to remedy political or economic injustice, reconstruction programs designed to help communities ravaged by conflict revitalize their economies, and the institution of effective and legitimate restorative justice systems.[15] Peacebuilding initiatives aim to promote nonviolent mechanisms that eliminate violence, foster structures that meet basic human needs, and maximize public participation.[16]
To provide fundamental services to its citizens, a state needs strong executive, legislative, and judicial institutions.[17] Many point to democratization as a key way to create these sorts of peace-enhancing structures. Democratization seeks to establish legitimate and stable political institutions and civil liberties that allow for meaningful competition for political power and broad participation in the selection of leaders and policies.[18] It is important for governments to adhere to principles of transparency and predictability, and for laws to be adopted through an open and public process.[19] For the purpose of post-conflict peacebuilding, the democratization process should be part of a comprehensive project to rebuild society's institutions.
Political structural changes focus on political development, state building, and the establishment of effective government institutions. This often involves election reform, judicial reform, power-sharing initiatives, and constitutional reform. It also includes building political parties, creating institutions that provide procedures and mechanisms for effectively handling and resolving conflict, and establishing mechanisms to monitor and protect human rights. Such institution building and infrastructure development typically requires the dismantling, strengthening, or reformation of old institutions in order to make them more effective.
It is crucial to establish and maintain rule of law, and to implement rules and procedures that constrain the powers of all parties and hold them accountable for their actions.[20] This can help to ease tension, create stability, and lessen the likelihood of further conflict. For example, an independent judiciary can serve as a forum for the peaceful resolution of disputes and post-war grievances.[21]
In addition, societies need a system of criminal justice that deters and punishes banditry and acts of violence.[22] Fair police mechanisms must be established and government officials and members of the police force must be trained to observe basic rights in the execution of their duties.[23] In addition, legislation protecting minorities and laws securing gender equality should be advanced. Courts and police forces must be free of corruption and discrimination.
But structural change can also be economic. Many note that economic development is integral to preventing future conflict and avoiding a relapse into violence.[24] Economic factors that put societies at risk include lack of employment opportunities, food scarcity, and lack of access to natural resources or land. A variety of social structural changes aim to eliminate the structural violence that arises out of a society's economic system. These economic and social reforms include economic development programs, health care assistance, land reform, social safety nets, and programs to promote agricultural productivity.[25]
Economic peacebuilding targets both the micro- and macro-level and aims to create economic opportunities and ensure that the basic needs of the population are met. On the microeconomic level, societies should establish micro-credit institutions to increase economic activity and investment at the local level, promote inter-communal trade and an equitable distribution of land, and expand school enrollment and job training.[26] On the macroeconomic level, the post-conflict government should be assisted in its efforts to secure the economic foundations and infrastructure necessary for a transition to peace.[27]
The Relational Dimension
A second integral part of building peace is reducing the effects of war-related hostility through the repair and transformation of damaged relationships. The relational dimension of peacebuilding centers on reconciliation, forgiveness, trust building, and future imagining. It seeks to minimize poorly functioning communication and maximize mutual understanding.[28]
Many believe that reconciliation is one of the most effective and durable ways to transform relationships and prevent destructive conflicts.[29] The essence of reconciliation is the voluntary initiative of the conflicting parties to acknowledge their responsibility and guilt. Parties reflect upon their own role and behavior in the conflict, and acknowledge and accept responsibility for the part they have played. As parties share their experiences, they learn new perspectives and change their perception of their "enemies." There is recognition of the difficulties faced by the opposing side and of their legitimate grievances, and a sense of empathy begins to develop. Each side expresses sincere regret and remorse, and is prepared to apologize for what has transpired. The parties make a commitment to let go of anger, and to refrain from repeating the injury. Finally, there is a sincere effort to redress past grievances and compensate for the damage done. This process often relies on interactive negotiation and allows the parties to enter into a new mutually enriching relationship.[30]
One of the essential requirements for the transformation of conflicts is effective communication and negotiation at both the elite and grassroots levels. Through both high- and community-level dialogues, parties can increase their awareness of their own role in the conflict and develop a more accurate perception of both their own and the other group's identity.[31] As each group shares its unique history, traditions, and culture, the parties may come to understand each other better. International exchange programs and problem-solving workshops are two techniques that can help to change perceptions, build trust, open communication, and increase empathy.[32] For example, over the course of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the main antagonists have sometimes been able to build trust through meeting outside their areas, not for formal negotiations, but simply to better understand each other.[33]
If these sorts of bridge-building communication systems are in place, relations between the parties can improve and any peace agreements they reach will more likely be self-sustaining.[34] (The Israeli-Palestinian situation illustrates that there are no guarantees, however.) Various mass communication and education measures, such as peace radio and TV, peace-education projects, and conflict-resolution training, can help parties to reach such agreements.[35] And dialogue between people of various ethnicities or opposing groups can lead to deepened understanding and help to change the demonic image of the enemy group.[36] It can also help parties to overcome grief, fear, and mistrust and enhance their sense of security.
A crucial component of such dialogue is future imaging, whereby parties form a vision of the commonly shared future they are trying to build. Conflicting parties often have more in common in terms of their visions of the future than they do in terms of their shared and violent past.[37] The thought is that if they know where they are trying to go, it will be easier to get there.
Another way for the parties to build a future together is to pursue joint projects that are unrelated to the conflict's core issues and center on shared interests. This can benefit the parties' relationship. Leaders who project a clear and hopeful vision of the future and the ways and means to get there can play a crucial role here.
But in addition to looking towards the future, parties must deal with their painful past. Reconciliation not only envisions a common, connected future, but also recognizes the need to redress past wrongdoing.[38] If the parties are to renew their relationship and build an interdependent future, what has happened must be exposed and then forgiven.
Indeed, a crucial part of peacebuilding is addressing past wrongdoing while at the same time promoting healing and rule of law.[39] Part of repairing damaged relationships is responding to past human rights violations and genocide through the establishment of truth commissions, fact-finding missions, and war crimes tribunals.[40] These processes attempt to deal with the complex legal and emotional issues associated with human rights abuses and ensure that justice is served. It is commonly thought that past injustice must be recognized, and the perpetrators punished if parties wish to achieve reconciliation.
However, many note that the retributive justice advanced by Western legal systems often ignores the needs of victims and exacerbates wounds.[41] Many note that to advance healing between the conflicting parties, justice must be more reparative in focus. Central to restorative justice is its future-orientation and its emphasis on the relationship between victims and offenders. It seeks to engage both victims and offenders in dialogue and make things right by identifying their needs and obligations.[42] Having community-based restorative justice processes in place can help to build a sustainable peace.
The Personal Dimension
The personal dimension of peacebuilding centers on desired changes at the individual level. If individuals are not able to undergo a process of healing, there will be broader social, political, and economic repercussions.[43] The destructive effects of social conflict must be minimized, and its potential for personal growth must be maximized.[44] Reconstruction and peacebuilding efforts must prioritize treating mental health problems and integrate these efforts into peace plans and rehabilitation efforts.
In traumatic situations, a person is rendered powerless and faces the threat of death and injury. Traumatic events might include a serious threat or harm to one's family or friends, sudden destruction of one's home or community, and a threat to one's own physical being.[45] Such events overwhelm an individual's coping resources, making it difficult for the individual to function effectively in society.[46] Typical emotional effects include depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. After prolonged and extensive trauma, a person is often left with intense feelings that negatively influence his/her psychological well being. After an experience of violence, an individual is likely to feel vulnerable, helpless, and out of control in a world that is unpredictable.[47]
Building peace requires attention to these psychological and emotional layers of the conflict. The social fabric that has been destroyed by war must be repaired, and trauma must be dealt with on the national, community, and individual levels.[48] At the national level, parties can accomplish widespread personal healing through truth and reconciliation commissions that seek to uncover the truth and deal with perpetrators. At the community level, parties can pay tribute to the suffering of the past through various rituals or ceremonies, or build memorials to commemorate the pain and suffering that has been endured.[49] Strong family units that can rebuild community structures and moral environments are also crucial.
At the individual level, one-on-one counseling has obvious limitations when large numbers of people have been traumatized and there are insufficient resources to address their needs. Peacebuilding initiatives must therefore provide support for mental health infrastructure and ensure that mental health professionals receive adequate training. Mental health programs should be adapted to suit the local context, and draw from traditional and communal practice and customs wherever possible.[50] Participating in counseling and dialogue can help individuals to develop coping mechanisms and to rebuild their trust in others.[51]
If it is taken that psychology drives individuals' attitudes and behaviors, then new emphasis must be placed on understanding the social psychology of conflict and its consequences. If ignored, certain victims of past violence are at risk for becoming perpetrators of future violence.[52] Victim empowerment and support can help to break this cycle.
Peacebuilding Agents
Peacebuilding measures should integrate civil society in all efforts and include all levels of society in the post-conflict strategy. All society members, from those in elite leadership positions, to religious leaders, to those at the grassroots level, have a role to play in building a lasting peace. Many apply John Paul Lederach's model of hierarchical intervention levels to make sense of the various levels at which peacebuilding efforts occur.[53]
Because peace-building measures involve all levels of society and target all aspects of the state structure, they require a wide variety of agents for their implementation. These agents advance peace-building efforts by addressing functional and emotional dimensions in specified target areas, including civil society and legal institutions.[54] While external agents can facilitate and support peacebuilding, ultimately it must be driven by internal forces. It cannot be imposed from the outside.
Various internal actors play an integral role in peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts. The government of the affected country is not only the object of peacebuilding, but also the subject. While peacebuilding aims to transform various government structures, the government typically oversees and engages in this reconstruction process. A variety of the community specialists, including lawyers, economists, scholars, educators, and teachers, contribute their expertise to help carry out peacebuilding projects. Finally, a society's religious networks can play an important role in establishing social and moral norms.[55]
Nevertheless, outside parties typically play a crucial role in advancing such peacebuilding efforts. Few peacebuilding plans work unless regional neighbors and other significant international actors support peace through economic development aid and humanitarian relief.[56] At the request of the affected country, international organizations can intervene at the government level to transform established structures.[57] They not only provide monetary support to post-conflict governments, but also assist in the restoration of financial and political institutions. Because their efforts carry the legitimacy of the international community, they can be quite effective.
Various institutions provide the necessary funding for peacebuilding projects. While international institutions are the largest donors, private foundations contribute a great deal through project-based financing.[58] In addition, regional organizations often help to both fund and implement peacebuilding strategies. Finally, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) often carry out small-scale projects to strengthen countries at the grassroots level. Not only traditional NGOs but also the business and academic community and various grassroots organizations work to further these peace-building efforts. All of the groups help to address "the limits imposed on governmental action by limited resources, lack of consensus, or insufficient political will."[59]
Some suggest that governments, NGOs, and intergovernmental agencies need to create categories of funding related to conflict transformation and peacebuilding.[60] Funds are often difficult to secure when they are intended to finance preventive action. And middle-range initiatives, infrastructure building, and grassroots projects do not typically attract significant funding, even though these sorts of projects may have the greatest potential to sustain long-term conflict transformation.[61] Those providing resources for peacebuilding initiatives must look to fill these gaps. In addition, external actors must think through the broader ramifications of their programs.[62] They must ensure that funds are used to advance genuine peacebuilding initiatives rather than be swallowed up by corrupt leaders or channeled into armed conflict.
But as already noted, higher-order peace, connected to improving local capacities, is not possible simply through third-party intervention.[63] And while top-down approaches are important, peace must also be built from the bottom up. Many top-down agreements collapse because the ground below has not been prepared. Top-down approaches must therefore be buttressed, and relationships built.
Thus, an important task in sustaining peace is to build a peace constituency within the conflict setting. Middle-range actors form the core of a peace constituency. They are more flexible than top-level leaders, and less vulnerable in terms of daily survival than those at the grassroots level.[64] Middle-range actors who strive to build bridges to their counterparts across the lines of conflict are the ones best positioned to sustain conflict transformation. This is because they have an understanding of the nuances of the conflict setting, as well as access to the elite leadership.
Many believe that the greatest resource for sustaining peace in the long term is always rooted in the local people and their culture.[65] Parties should strive to understand the cultural dimension of conflict, and identify the mechanisms for handling conflict that exist within that cultural setting. Building on cultural resources and utilizing local mechanisms for handling disputes can be quite effective in resolving conflicts and transforming relationships. Initiatives that incorporate citizen-based peacebuilding include community peace projects in schools and villages, local peace commissions and problem-solving workshops, and a variety of other grassroots initiatives.
Effective peacebuilding also requires public-private partnerships in addressing conflict and greater coordination among the various actors.[66] International governmental organizations, national governments, bilateral donors, and international and local NGOs need to coordinate to ensure that every dollar invested in peacebuilding is spent wisely.[67] To accomplish this, advanced planning and intervention coordination is needed.
There are various ways to attempt to coordinate peace-building efforts. One way is to develop a peace inventory to keep track of which agents are doing various peace-building activities. A second is to develop clearer channels of communication and more points of contact between the elite and middle ranges. In addition, a coordination committee should be instituted so that agreements reached at the top level are actually capable of being implemented.[68] A third way to better coordinate peace-building efforts is to create peace-donor conferences that bring together representatives from humanitarian organizations, NGOs, and the concerned governments. It is often noted that "peacebuilding would greatly benefit from cross-fertilization of ideas and expertise and the bringing together of people working in relief, development, conflict resolution, arms control, diplomacy, and peacekeeping."[69] Lastly, there should be efforts to link internal and external actors. Any external initiatives must also enhance the capacity of internal resources to build peace-enhancing structures that support reconciliation efforts throughout a society.[70] In other words, the international role must be designed to fit each case.
[1] Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. An Agenda for Peace. New York: United Nations 1995.
[1a] SAIS, "The Conflict Management Toolkit: Approaches," The Conflict Management Program, Johns Hopkins University [available at: http://cmtoolkit.sais-jhu.edu/
[2] Henning Haugerudbraaten, "Peacebuilding: Six Dimensions and Two Concepts," Institute For Security Studies. [available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No6/Peacebuilding.html]
[3] Luc Reychler, "From Conflict to Sustainable Peacebuilding: Concepts and Analytical Tools," in Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 12.
[4] Reychler, 12.
[5] John Paul Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. (Washington, D.C., United States Institute of Peace, 1997), 75.
[6] SAIS, [available at: http://cmtoolkit.sais-jhu.edu/]
[7] Michael Doyle and Nicholas Sambanis. "Building Peace: Challenges and Strategies After Civil War," The World Bank Group. [available at: http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/building.pdf] 3.
[8] Doyle and Sambanis, 2
[9] Lederach, 77.
[10] SAIS
[11] Doyle and Sambanis, 5.
[12] SAIS
[13] Haugerudbraaten
[14] Haugerudbraaten
[15] SAIS
[16] Lederach, 83.
[17] SAIS
[18] SAIS
[19] Neil J. Kritz, "The Rule of Law in the Post-Conflict Phase: Building a Stable Peace," in Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict, eds. Chester A. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall. (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996), 593.
[20] Kritz, 588.
[21] Kritz, 591.
[22] Kritz, 591.
[23] SAIS
[24] SAIS
[25] Michael Lund, "A Toolbox for Responding to Conflicts and Building Peace," In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 18.
[26] SAIS
[27] These issues are discussed in detail in the set of essays on development in this knowledge base.
[28] Lederach, 82.
[29] Hizkias Assefa, "Reconciliation," in Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 342.
[30] Assefa, 340.
[31] SAIS
[32] SAIS
[33] Kathleen Stephens, "Building Peace in Deeply Rooted Conflicts: Exploring New Ideas to Shape the Future" INCORE, 1997.
[34] Reychler, 13.
[35] Lund, 18.
[36] SAIS
[37] Lederach, 77.
[38] Lederach, 31.
[39] Howard Zehr, "Restorative Justice," In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 330.
[40] SAIS
[41] Zehr, 330.
[42] Zehr, 331.
[43] SAIS
[44] Lederach, 82.
[45] Hugo van der Merwe and Tracy Vienings, "Coping with Trauma," in Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 343.
[46] van der Merwe, 343.
[47] van der Merwe, 345.
[48] van der Merwe, 343.
[49] van der Merwe, 344.
[50] SAIS
[51] van der Merwe, 347.
[52] van der Merwe, 344.
[53] John Paul Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, Chapter 4.
[54] SAIS
[55] SAIS
[56] Doyle and Sambanis, 18.
[57] SAIS
[58] SAIS
[59] Stephens.
[60] Lederach, 89.
[61] Lederach, 92.
[62] Lederach, 91.
[63] Doyle and Sambanis, 25.
[64] Lederach, 94.
[65] Lederach, 94.
[66] Stephens.
[67] Doyle and Sambanis, 23.
[68] Lederach, 100.
[69] Lederach, 101.
[70] Lederach, 103.
Use the following to cite this article:
Maiese, Michelle. "Peacebuilding." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/peacebuilding/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Brahm, Eric. "At War's End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict -- Summary." Conflict Research Consortium, 2000.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10437/.
This is a summary of Roland Paris's "At War's End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict."
Glaser, Tanya. "Building Peace -- Summary." University of Colorado-Boulder: Conflict Research Consortium, 1998.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10360/.
This page offers a summary of the book, Building Peace, by John Paul Lederach. Lederach argues that dealing with contemporary armed conflict requires new approaches in addition to traditional diplomacy. Building peace will require a long-term commitment to creating an infrastructure across all levels of society that empowers domestic sources of reconciliation, and maximizes external contributions.
de Zeeuw, Jeroen. "Building Peace in War-Torn Societies: From Concept to Strategy." , August 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
"Following a period of violent conflict, war-torn societies face many challenges. These include the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants, resettlement and reintegration of refugees and internally displaced persons and the reform of governancy structures. In many cases, societies themselves lack the human, institutional and financial resources to tackle these problems. International assistance in these key areas of peace-building is therefore instrumental. This study deals with the concept of 'peace-building', focusing what is needed to come to a strategic framework for more effective peace-building programmes that take into account local needs and capacities."
Doyle, Michael W. and Nicholas Sambanis. "Building Peace: Challenges and Strategies After Civil War." , December 27, 1999
Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/building.pdf.
This article outlines some of the challenges of expanding the space for peace and strategies to achieve such a goal. The article poses as many new questions as it answers, though it points to a fruitful way to conceptualize peace and to analyze the role of the international community in resolving civil wars.
Conflict Research Consortium Staff. "Cooperating for Peace - Book Summary." Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10193/.
This summary describes an earlier edition of Gareth Evans', Cooperating for Peace. The book analyzes contemporary security problems facing the international community, and suggests a strategy for responding to such problems which emphasizes prevention, peace building, and cooperative security. The role of the United Nations in securing peace is discussed throughout.
Faith-Based NGOs and International Peacebuilding.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr76.html.
This report discusses the importance of faith-based non-governmental organizations in international peacebuilding. These organizations deal with high-level mediation to training and peacebuilding through development at grassroots levels.
Atwood, David. Peacebuilding in War-Time Societies: Workshop Report. Quakers United Nations Office (QUNO).
Available at: http://www.ciaonet.org/conf/atd01/.
The participants from this workshop were representatives from international and governmental agencies and other organizations involved in peacebuilding efforts in war-torn societies or related activities. The objective was to share past experiences and current programmes, and to explore new approaches and perspectives for the future. The report features a summary of the issues raised during the workshop and outlines the notions of peacebuilding and collaboration that were discussed.
"Peacebuilding: Six Dimensions and Two Concepts." African Security Review, Vol. 7, No. 6 , 1998
Available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No6/Peacebuilding.html.
This article attempts to clarify some of the main divergences in the usage of the term "peacebuilding". To do so, the author reviews an extensive selection of literature on the topic
Bernard, Cheryl and Nancy Rubin. Perspectives on Grassroots Peacebuilding: The Roles of Women in War and Peace. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/events/pre2002/grassrootsconf.html.
Download transcripts of conference keynote addresses by Cheryl Bernard (Director for Research, Boltzmann Institute) and Nancy Rubin (Ambassador and Head of the US Delegation to the UN Commission on Human Rights), speaking on how gender influences all aspects of a violent conflict.
Santiso, Carlos. Promoting Democratic Governance and Preventing the Recurrence of Conflict: The Role of the United Nations Development Programme in Post Conflict Peace-Building. University of Sussex: Institute of Development Studies.
Available at: http://www.eldis.org/fulltext/promoting.pdf.
Abstract: This article assesses the significance, promises and dilemmas of the governance agenda for [the United Nations Development Programme] and analyses the scope, promptings, and institutionalisation of democracy and governance programmes within UNDP, using Central America as a case study. It argues that the future of UNDP democracy assistance will largely depend on how successful it is at resolving the inherent tensions between democracy promotion and national sovereignty, while retaining its multilateral approach to peace and democracy.
The Conflict Management Toolkit:. Johns Hopkins University: School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS).
Available at: http://sais-jhu.edu/cmtoolkit/index.html.
This web page outlines target areas for Peacebuilding efforts, including reconstruction programs, reconciliation, institution building, and political and economic transformation. Peacebuilding is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and seeks to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict.
Schirch, Lisa and Manjrika Sewak. "The Role of Women in Peacebuilding." , 2004
Available at: Click here for more info.
In the last ten years, a powerful and expanding network of women began to strategize and articulate a global agenda for including women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding. This paper gives a brief history of that network, examines the current concerns and tensions around women's roles in peacebuilding, and provides examples, lesson's learned, recommendations, and resources for civil society, government, and UN actors involved in conflict prevention and peacebuilding.
Offline (Print) Sources
Human Rights and Conflict: Exploring the Links Between Rights, Law, and Peacebuilding. United States Institute of Peace Press, August 30, 2006.
This book explores the relationship between human rights, international law and conflict management perspectives in different conflict stages. Click here for more info.
Lederach, John Paul. A Framework for Building Peace. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995.
The author's experience with cross-cultural mediation training has raised questions about the relation between culture and conflict, and about the purpose and practice of mediation training. Click here for more info.
Lund, Michael S. "A Toolbox for Responding to Conflicts and Building Peace." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001.
Lund outlines a variety of policy tools that can be used to prevent or mitigate conflict and build peace. These tools include variety of diplomatic and military measures, as well as initiatives aimed at building political and economic infrastructure. The author also classifies tools in terms of whether they address systemic conditions, proximate factors, or immediate causes. He suggests that successful application of the tools depends on the conflict context and conditions.
Stepanova, Ekaterina. Anti-terrorism and Peace Building During and After Conflict. Solna: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2003.
Whitney, Diana, Claudia Liebler and David L. Cooperrider. "Appreciative Inquiry in Organizations and International Development: An Invitation to Share and Learn Across Fields." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Sampson, Cynthia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"This chapter provides an overview of the theory and practice of Appreciative Inquiry, a positive-change approach used for organizational innovation and capacity building, strategic planning, and partnership, network, or coalition building in businesses, international development agencies, and social-change organizations of all kinds. Powered by the principle of "wholeness," Appreciative Inquiry involves people from every stakeholder group in connecting to the positive core of a system's capacities, strengths, and assets to create a shared dream of the future and mobilize creative energies to work towards its realization. After defining Appreciative Inquiry, the chapter takes the reader on a journey through the 4-D Cycle of Discovery, Dream, Design, and Destiny, giving examples of the work that is done in each phase. The Appreciative Inquiry Summit, a high-participation, full-voice process is described; and the chapter concludes by proposing five areas in which Appreciative Inquiry might be put to the service of peacebuilding."
Sampson, Cynthia and Claudia Liebler. "Appreciative Inquiry in Peacebuilding: Imagining the Possible." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Whitney, Diana, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"This chapter integrates insights from the two previous chapters by relating the theoretical underpinnings and practice of Appreciative Inquiry to those of conflict resolution and peacebuilding. It also relates the foundations of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) to a number of the case studies of positive approaches to peacebuilding in this volume. The chapter concludes by exploring how the AI 4-D Cycle of Discovery, Dream, Design, and Delivery has been, or might be, applied in peacebuilding contexts; and it illustrates some of the ways in which the design of the AI process can be contextualized for differnt types of conflict settings."
Paris, Roland. At war's end: building peace after civil conflict. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Exploring the challenge of rehabilitating countries after civil wars, this study finds that attempting to transform war-shattered states into liberal democracies with market economies can backfire badly. Roland Paris contends that the rapid introduction of democracy and capitalism in the absence of effective institutions can increase rather than decrease the danger of renewed fighting. A more effective approach to post-conflict peacebuilding would be to introduce political and economic reform in a gradual and controlled manner.-Amazon Click here for more info.
Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, December 1997.
Lederach discusses why we need to move beyond "traditional" diplomacy, which often emphasizes top-level leaders and short-term objectives, toward a holistic approach that stresses the multiplicity of peacemakers, long-term perspectives, and the need to create an infrastructure that empowers resources within a society and maximizes contributions from outside. A peacebuilding process that integrates a variety of actors is crucial to transforming relationships, addressing the underlying causes of conflict, and creating a lasting peace. Click here for more info.
Evans, Gareth G. Cooperating for Peace: The Global Agenda for the 1990's and Beyond. Paul & Co. Publishing Consortium, February 1994.
This work analyses contemporary security problems facing the international community, and suggests a strategy for responding to such problems which emphasizes prevention, peace building, and cooperative security. The role of the United Nations in securing peace is discussed throughout.
Click here for more info.
Chupp, Mark . "Creating a Culture of Peace in Postwar El Salvador." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Liebler, Claudia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"The Usulutan province of El Salvador was pivotal in the country's civil war. After the war, the area lacked infrastructure and state support for thousands of families who settled in the region. A group of villages formed a grassroots organization, La Coordinadora, to prevent disasters and promote sustainable development. In 1998, they declared themselves a Local Zone of Peace and established the Culture of Peace Program (CPP) to overcome rampant violence and teach peace. Rather than adopt a foreign conflict resolution model, CPP selected international consultants with an elicitive approache to create an indigenous process. The CPP process involves a core group of peasant leaders who facilitate dialogue and reflection circles as a means of educating villages, resolving conflict, and promoting democratic processes. The consultants promoted an inclusive, whole-system approach, active nonviolence, a positive vision of the future, and an experiential-reflective program-design process. Although slow, the effort avoided dependency on outsiders and is transforming communities into a zone of peace."
Sisk, Timothy D. "Democratization and Peacebuilding." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001.
How to craft postwar democratic instituions to foster reconciliation, to design a democratic system that may help manage and ameliorate the underlying causes of conflict over the long term.
Reychler, Luc. "From Conflict to Sustainable Peacebuilding: Concepts and Analytical Tools." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001.
The author begins by discussing the diagnosis and prevention of violent conflict, as well as the process of conflict impact assessment. He goes on to explore the notions of sustainable peacebuilding and conflict transformation, and suggests that the preconditions for sustainable peace are effective communication, peace-enhancing structures, and integrative moral-political climate, and both real and perceived security.
Aall, Pamela, Lt. Col. Daniel Miltenberger and Thomas G. Weiss. Guide to IGOs, NGOs, and the Military in Peace and Relief Operations. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, November 1, 2000.
This book explains the roles, organizational cultures, and structures of inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and militaries. It argues that the increased understanding of the three basic types of international peace building actors offered in the book will assist people in one sort of organization to understand and work with people in other sorts of organizations during peace operations. Click here for more info.
Tschirgi, Necla. "Making a Case for a Regional Approach to Peacebuilding." Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 1:1, 2002.
The author argues that a regional conflict lens will lead to more effective peacebuilding.
Abu-Nimer, Mohammed. Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam: Theory and Practice. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003.
Peace-Building: A Field Guide. Lynne Rienner Publishers, September 2000.
This edited volume introduces concepts and tools for sustainable peacebuilding, outlines specific peacebuilding activities, and addresses the problems that field-workers face on an almost daily basis. The pieces presented here aim to make the reader aware of the bigger picture involved in building a lasting peace. Click here for more info.
Paris, Roland. "Peacebuilding and the Limits of International Peacebuilding." International Security 22:2, January 1, 1997.
Paris argues that according the criteria of success for peacebuilding missions most missions have been failures. Paris makes an important critique against most peacebuilding strategies because they tend to attempt too much too soon. Peacebuilding missions also are poorly coordinated with poorly articulated goals. The main threat of failed peacebuilding missions is, according to Paris, the possibility of renewed and exacerbated violence.
Doe, Sam Gbaydee. "Proventive Peacebuilding in the Republic of Guinea: Building Peace by Cultivating the Positives." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Liebler, Claudia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"This chapter advances a new model of peacebuilding-"proventive peacebuilding"-which identifies, affirms, celebrates, and strengthens the values, instruments, and processes that nurture and sustain peace in a society. It focues on the conflict-carrying and peeace-generating capacities of the society. Conflict-carrying capacities assure relative stability or negative peace, while peace-generating factors nurture and sustain positive peace. Guinea Conakry is cited as a case study in which proventive peacebuilding has been applied. The peace-generating factors identified in Guinea Conakry are history, interethnic coexistence and cohesion, economic potentials, and religion, while the culture of silence is identified as a conflict carrying capacity."
Assefa, Hizkias. "Reconciliation." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001.
This brief chapter discusses various conflict handling mechanisms and their relative effectiveness, and distinguishes between conflict management, conflict resolution, and conflict prevention. Because conflict management strategies are not adequate to build a lasting peace, parties must move toward conflict resolution and reconciliation processes. The author discusses the elements of the reconciliation process and its central goals.
Bertram, Eva. "Reinventing Governments: The Promise and Perils of United Nations Peace Building." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 39:3, September 1995.
This paper discusses the mixed results of United Nations peace building efforts since about 1990. The article notes successes in El Salvador, Mozambique, Cambodia, and Namibia, but also questions whether the UN can overcome some key dilemmas and constraints that it faces when it comes to peace building.
Appleby, R. Scott. "Religion as an Agent of Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace, September 2001.
In spite of it often being the source of intolerance, human rights violations, and extremist violence, this article discusses the potential of religion as an agent of conflict transformation and peacebuilding. The author uses the term peacebuilding to encompass a braod range of activities, including conflict prevention and management; the transformation of conflict through mediation; the implementation of negotiated settlements, and the longer-term rebuilding of civil society and democratic institutions.
Roberts, Adam. "The Crisis in UN Peacekeeping." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
"This article addresses four main questions: 1) What were the essential
features of UN peacekeeping up to 1987? 2) How has the character of UN
peacekeeping changed since 1988, and what are the consequences of hte
changes? 3: In what kinds of crises can UN peacekeeping usefully become
involved, and in what kinds is it inappropriate? 4) What are the issues
that the UN and its member-states need to address?"
Kritz, Neil J. "The Rule of Law in the Post-Conflict Phase: Building a Stable Peace." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
The author discusses some of the structural and procedural elements essential to the functioning of the rule of law, including an independent judiciary, a law enforcement system, and a freely elected representative government. Reckoning with war crimes and other past abuses is also central to maintaining rule of law, and criminals must be held accountable for their actions. In some cases, this will involve removing government officials from their positions of power and instituting a new government. Compensation and restitution are also crucial, as well as constitutional reform and the establishment of new legal entities to deal with justice issues in the post-conflict phase.
Hartford, Barbara and Charles Gibbs. "The United Religions Initiative and Appreciative Inquiry: An Evolving Partnership." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Liebler, Claudia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"The United Religions Initiative (URI) has developed an innovative and positive approache to interfaith peacebuilding through its unique partnership with Appreciative Inquiry. This chapter documents that partnership since its inception in 1997. It was framed by a series of global and regional summits, which were all designed and conducted using Appreciative Inquiry (AI) and which created a gloal community schooled in the practice of AI. That practice has been marked by a suppleness that allowed AI to be adapted to the ever more focused work of completing the URI charter and establishing an organization designed to create enduring, daily interfaith cooperation. A current major URI focus is the development of a peacebuilding program, including training for grassroots leaders, locally contextualized projects, development of an interfaith peacebuilding curriculum, and a global inquiry to forge new visions and strategies for peace among religions for the twenty-first century."
van Tongeren, Paul and Guido de Graaf Bierbrauwer. "Toward National Infrastructures for Peacebuilding." In Searching for Peace in Europe and Eurasia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities. Edited by Verhoeven, Juliette, Paul van Tongeren and Hans van de Veen, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
"Now that-finally-conflict prevention and peacebuilding have been recognized and accepted as legitimate and important activities, it is time to "mainstream" them. That means incorporating these instruments into policies and programs at all levels-intergovernmental, governmental, in the private sector, and among NGOs. At present, conflict prevention and peacebuilding activities are at various levels of development among the member states of the European Union. Significant gaps exist that impede a successful and comprehensive program to intervene effectively to prevent conflict and create the conditions for durable peace in the aftermath of conflict. What is needed is an "infrastructure" that will help build the community, provide the skills, and make possible successful conflict prevention and peacebuilding activities. In addition, there is a need for coordination of these activities. The EU has clearly expressed its support for the concept of conflict prevention and peacebuilding. It is now time to move byond good intentions to meaningful action."
Abu-Nimer, Mohammed. "Toward the Theory and Practice of Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Liebler, Claudia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"This chapter grounds the volume's exploration of positive approaches to peacebuilding by first providing a brief overview of the development of the conflict resolution and peacebuilding field over the last four decades in North America and, more recently, worldwide - a history that brings us to this moment of new evolutionary possibility. Next it looks at the core assumptions and principles of peacebuilding, which set a framework for considering, throughout the book's explorations, the ways in which positive approaches are in affinity with the assumptions and values of peacebuilding and support key aspects of peacebuilding practice, as well as the ways in which positive approaches may fall short and possibly will need to stand aside or be developed further. The chapter concludes with a discussion of positive elements in existing peacebuilding practice as the first step toward the more systematic study and practice of positive approaches to peacebuilding to which this volume is committed."
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Ningbabria, Aloyse. African Peace Team Seeks to Resolve Longstanding Hatreds. Friends Peace Teams.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This report documents the work that was down by the Kibimba Peace Committee in their efforts towards building peace and reconciliation to the people of Burundi.
Posthumus, Bram. "Angola: War Without End?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the history of the Angolan conflict, and the processes that have been used to manage it. Much of the piece discusses the efforts of various United Nations' initiatives in Angola, as well as attempts by other NGOs to bring peace to the nation.
Havermans, Jos. "Burundi: Peace-Initiatives Help Stem the Violence." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article describes the peace initiatives that have been agreed upon in order to quell the violent ethnic conflict between majority Hutus and the minority Tutsis in Burundi. The article details the dynamics of the conflict as well as outlining the variety of peacemakign and peacebuilding activities that have occurred in the region.
Jelsma, Martin, Marc Chernick and Robin Kirk. Colombia: Conflict Analysis and Options for Peacebuilding: Assessing Possibilities for Further Swiss Contributions.
Available at: http://www.swisspeace.org/uploads/koff/reports/colombia.pdf.
The Center for Peacebuilding (KOFF) produced this report in order to analyze the current situation in Colombia and explore the potential for various peacebuilding efforts. These efforts involve the collaboration of a network of national and international actors and include human rights protection, community rehabilitation, and the development of civil society.
Gouden, Vasu and Hussein Solomon. Conflict Resolution in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Angola and South Africa. Conflict Early Warning Systems (CEWS).
Available at: Click here for more info.
This essay compares the Angolan conflict to the conflict in South African. Conflict causes, phases, and conditions are examined, along with social and political factors.
Fetherston, A. B. "From Conflict Resolution to Transformative Peacebuilding: Reflections From Croatia." , 2000
Available at: http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/confres/assets/CCR4.pdf.
The author argues that conflict resolution needs to undergo reappraisal in the light of critical social theory and in the context of peacebuilding practices which have emerged out of war zones. Fetherston advocates for a needs-based problem solving process that brings about the transformation of modern conflicts.
Schwoebel, Mary Hope. "Impact Evaluation of the War-Torn Societies Project: Somaliland." , 2001
Available at: http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACY571.pdf.
This report begins with an overview of the events leading to Somaliland's declaration of independence in 1991, the internal conflicts that occurred in the middle of the decade, the processes that brought about the current peace, and the ongoing processes of peace building and state-building. Sources of past conflicts in Somaliland and potential sources of threats to sustainable peace will be discussed, focusing on six dimensions on which peacebuilding interventions aim to have an impact.
Posthumus, Bram. "Mali: Successful Mediation Effort Could Lead to Lasting Peace." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlies the dynamics of the rebel insurgency in Mali in the early 1990s and the subsequent peace efforts that took place. It is noted that the mediated peace settlement has been successful mostly because of inclusive stakeholder representation and participation.
More Than Victims: Women's Role in Conflict Prevention. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Available at: http://wwics.si.edu/topics/pubs/ACF19D.pdf.
This work discusses the role women play in conflict situations, usually as part of civil society movements. The report examines women's roles in organizing to prevent conflict, to help end it once it begins, and also as post-conflict peacebuilders. The paper includes examples from several conflict regions including Kashmir, Nigeria, Afghanistan, Rwanda, El Salvador, and Lebanon.
Smock, David and John Prendergast. Postgenocidal Reconstruction: Building Peace in Rwanda and Burundi.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990915.html.
This report discusses various options for peacebuilding in the Great Lakes region of Africa. The report emphasizes the interconnectedness of the security situations in Rwanda, Burundi, and Congo.
Offline (Print) Sources
David, Charles-Philippe. "Alice in Wonderland Meets Frankenstein: Constructivism, Realism, and Peacebuilding in Bosnia." Contemporary Security Policy 22:1, April 1, 2001.
This article analyzes the conflict in Bosnia, and peacebuilding efforts there, through the constructivist and realist approaches. The author focuses on three dimensions of the issues in Bosnia: security, political-democratic, and socio-economic transitions.
Actors and Approaches to Peacebuilding: The Case of Sudan. "Prendergast analyzes conflict in Sudan using Lederach's models of conflict and peacebuilding. Sudan has been at war for the better part of forty years. Prendergast focuses on peacemaking attempts from 1989 onward. In 1989 a coup by the National Islamic Front (NIF) installed the current Sudanese government. A variety of rebel forces continue in violent opposition to the NIF." -Tanya Glaser, reviewer
Call, Charles T. "Assessing El Salvador's Transition from Civil War to Peace." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implemention of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
The chapter makes two main arguments. "First, based upon the Salvadoran case, I argue that the character of a conflict and the conditions that facilitate its termination are at least as important as the role of implementing actors....Second, I show that El Salvador's transition from civil war to peace was highly contested, and that the success of the Salvadoran peace process was not without important shortcomings or qualifications." (384)
Stanley, William and David Holiday. "Broad Participation, Diffuse Responsibility: Peace Implementation in Guatemala." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
Discusses the formation and implementation of the UN-sponsored peace accord in Guatemala.
Fitzduff, Mari. "Changing History: Peace Building in Northern Ireland." Netherlands, European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
This piece describes the elements that were most important in building peace in Northern Ireland and reaching the Belfast agreement. The major contributors to peace included community development and community relations work, increased political dialogue and development, work to address social and economic inequities, and efforts to transform the educational system.
Bose, Sumantra. "Flawed Mediation, Chaotic Implementation: The 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Agreement." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implentation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
This example provides two key lessons on designing peace agreements. First, mediation and implementation must be connected, namely the Tamil Tigers were not part of the mediation process which hindered implementation. Second, the intervention of a regional hegemon can be controversial because they are often not seen as neutral.
Cousens, Elizabeth M. "From Missed Opportunities to Overcompensation: Implementing the Dayton Agreement on Bosnia." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Stedman, Stephen John, Donald S. Rothchild and Elizabeth M. Cousens, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
This chapter examines the period after the Dayton accords to see if the agreement contributed to a continued lack of resolution of the conflict. Each achievement of the agreement has been accompanied by what Cousens calls "subversive elements," or side-effects. She argues that the agreement was a dissatisfiying compromise, put burdens on the implementors to taylor it toward either separation or integration, and provided significant authority to international actors, which was unfortunately often squandered.
Cousens, Elizabeth M. "From Missed Opportunities to Overcompensation: Implementing the Dayton Agreement on Bosnia." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Stedman, Stephen John, Donald S. Rothchild and Elizabeth M. Cousens, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
This chapter examines the period after the Dayton accords to see if the agreement contributed to a continued lack of resolution of the conflict. Each achievement of the agreement has been accompanied by what Cousens calls "subversive elements," or side-effects. She argues that the agreement was a dissatisfiying compromise, put burdens on the implementors to taylor it toward either separation or integration, and provided significant authority to international actors, which was unfortunately often squandered.
Garber, Randi. "Health as a Bridge for Peace: Theory, Practice and Prognosis, Reflections of a Practitioner." Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 1:1, 2002.
This article explains how members of both antagonistic parties in Haiti, Israel-Palestine, and the Balkans, collaborated on health care programs, and thus, opened up avenues for peacebuilding efforts in their embattled communities.
Peou, Sorpong. "Implementing Cambodia's Peace Agreement." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
Provides an overview of the UN-sponsored peace agreement in Cambodia and, in evaluating its implementation, argues it has been a "qualified success." The chapter also discusses the factors limiting the effectiveness of the agreement. It also focuses on the interests of the different parties to the agreement.
Khadiagala, Gilbert. "Implementing the Arusha Peace Agreement on Rwanda." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S. and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
The Arusha Accords will go down in history as one of the most dismal failures of international diplomacy. Khadiagala details the issues that led to failure of the Arusha Accords and the subsequent Tutsi genocide.
Adebajo, Adekeye. "Liberia: A Warlord's Peace." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothstein, Robert L., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
Examines ECOMOG's efforts to end Liberia's civil war. The chapter argues that ECOMOG's success has been limited (and the civil war persisted) by a continued difficult situation in Liberia, an emphasis on coersion, and a lack of attention by the international community. The chapter provides a background on the civil war and outlines the phases of the peace process. It is not optomistic about continued peace.
Zahar, Marie-Joelle. "Peace by Unconventional Means: Lebanon's Ta'if Agreement." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
The chapter argues that the Syrian presence has allowed medium term successful implementation of the peace agreement by bringing stability.
Cousens, Elizabeth M., Chetan Kumar and Karin Wermester, eds. Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies. Lynne Rienner Publications, October 2000.
"This volume examines five cases of large-scale interventions to build peace: El Salvador, Cambodia, Haiti, Somalia, and Bosnia. Its aim is fourfold: first, to shed light on the unique conditions for and constraints upon peacebuilding in each case; second, to examine the quality of international efforts to respond to these; third, to bring greater clarity to ongoing debate over the content and purpose of "international peacebuilding"; and fourth, to identify questions that need continuing attention in order to set more nuanced priorities for peacebuilding under different conditions and to better harness the wide range of international activities to address them." (2-3)
Paris, Roland. "Peacebuilding in Central America: Reproducing the Sources of Conflict?." , August 1, 2002.
This article discusses the United Nation's role in peacebuilding operations in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala in the 1990s. It addresses whether these missions merely reestablished long-standing conflicts.
People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories from Around the World. European Centre for Conflict Prevention, June 1999.
This book has 35 stories about peace, ranging from peacebuilding in Northern Ireland to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Click here for more info.
Towards Better Peacebuilding Practice: On Lessons Learned, Evaluation Practices and Aid and Conflict. SC Utrect, the Netherlands: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 2002.
In October 2001 the European Platform for Conflict Prevention organized, in close cooperation with Cordaid, the international conference Towards Better Peacebuilding Practice. This conference attracted 300 participants from over 50 countries, mostly representatives from governments, research institutions and NGOs. The issues on which they focused included: what have we learned after some ten years of conflict resolution and peacebuilding; and how do we translate these lessons into future practice. Click here for more info.
Boulding, Elise. "United Nations Peacebuilding in Namibia." In New Agendas for Peace Research. Edited by Jeong, Ho-Won, ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 1992.
This is one chapter of Elise Boulding's book, New Agendas for Peace Research. It is about the UN and their peacebuilding attempts in Namibia.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Kim's Story: The Road from Vietnam. Directed and/or Produced by: Saywell, Shelley. First Run Icarus Films. 1996.
This film relates the story of Kim Phuc, who years after reaching world renown as the nine-year old girl who was running naked in the famous Vietnam War photograph, went to the US were she promoted an atmosphere of peace and forgiveness. Click here for more info.
On the Edge of Peace. Directed and/or Produced by: Ziv, Ilan. First Run Icarus Films. 1995.
This film documents Palestinian's and Israeli's first year of the implementation of the Israeli-Palestinian peace accords. Click here for more info.
Ralph Bunche An American Odyssey - Video. Directed and/or Produced by: Greaves, William. William Greaves Productions, Inc.. 1900.
Few remember the name, much less the historic achievements, of Dr. Ralph Johnson Bunche (1903-1971). Yet, this African American mediator and United Nations diplomat was the first person of color anywhere in the world to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. This video documents Dr. Bunche and his achievements.
The Road to Peace: Israelis and Palestinians. Directed and/or Produced by: Fernea, Elizabeth and Yaron Shemer. First Run Icarus Films. 1995.
The final section of this three-part film examines a number of groups, some that are working in tangent who are building peaceful relations between Israelis and Palestinians. Click here for more info.
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