"All the new nations faced severe problems, for political independence did not automatically bring them prosperity and happiness...they were seldom free of external influences. They were still bound to...structures developed earlier by the colonial powers." --Thomas H. Greer. From A Brief History of the Western World, 5th edition. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1987, p. 536-37.
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Around the world today, intractable conflict is found in many areas that were once colonized or controlled by Western European or Soviet powers (i.e., Africa, the Balkans, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, South America). The source of many of these protracted conflicts, in large part, lies in past colonial or Soviet policies, and especially those regarding territorial boundaries, the treatment of indigenous populations, the privileging of some groups over others, the uneven distribution of wealth, local governmental infrastructures, and the formation of non-democratic or non-participatory governmental systems. It is therefore essential, if one wants to understand intractable conflict and its causes, to examine not only the issues and problems of the moment, but also influential historical factors -- most notably, past colonial and Soviet policies -- and their lingering effects.
Colonial and Soviet Expansionism
Western colonial expansion began during the 15th century when Spanish and Portuguese explorers conquered "new" lands in the West Indies and the Americas. It continued for over 400 years, and ended with the start of the first World War. By that time western powers such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Portugal and Spain, spurred on by their competitive desire to acquire new lands and resources, had colonized the whole of Africa and the areas that we know today as the Americas, Oceania, Australia, New Zealand, the Caribbean, the Middle East, and many parts of Asia.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) likewise embarked on an expansionist period that took place during the first half of the 20th century. By mid-century, due to lands gained through an aggressive expansionist policy and through post-World War II treaties, the Soviet Empire gained control of all of Russia and most of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
Onaje Mu'id , MSW and CASAC (Credentialed Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Counselor) with the Practioners Research and Scholarship Institute (PRASI), describes the need for some sort of reconciliation amongst the nations or races of the world, but the question relates to ripeness.
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During these periods of expansion, Western European and Soviet powers formed new colonial multiethnic provinces (e.g., Rhodesia, French Indonesia, German East Africa) and satellite states (e.g., Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia). They did so with little regard for the people living in the newly controlled areas, or for existing geographic or cultural boundaries. Populations that had previously identified themselves as distinct, based on their cultural, ethnic, and/or religious heritage, were forced to unify under a single national identity. The new multiethnic colonial territories and Soviet states were maintained, upheld, and controlled through the use of violence, and through the implementation of imperialist policies. Certain populations were denied their political, economic, social, and human rights. Imperialist policies promoted ethnic rivalry by favoring one group above the others, distributed resources in an unequal manner, disallowed democratic governments, and prohibited local participation in governmental decisions and actions.
Issues Affecting Postcolonial and Post-Soviet States
By the 1960s, after years of fighting for independence, most Western colonial territories (e.g., India, Indonesia, Algeria) had gained self-rule. Sovereignty, however, did not bring with it freedom from imperialist influences. Colonial legacies were visible in the desire of the new governments to keep the boundaries that were created during colonial times, in the promotion of ethnic rivalry, in the continuation of inhumane and unjust actions against minority populations, and in the practice of distributing the country's resources in an uneven manner. Also, after being under foreign rule for decades, newly independent governments often lacked governmental institutions, good governance skills, and the governing experience needed to effectively rule their newly sovereign nations. In most cases, the transition from colonial province to independent state was a violent and arduous journey.
Many post-Soviet states (e.g., Azerbaijan, Chechnya, Georgia) experienced similar problems. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, conflicts involving borders, ethnic rivalry, human-rights violations, and the uneven distribution of resources raged through former Soviet regions (e.g., the Balkans, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe). In addition, many post-Soviet governments were plagued by a lack of governmental institutions, good governance skills, and governmental experience.
Issues of particular importance included:
Boundaries
"Over a hundred new nations were born during the process of de-colonization. Most of these new nations, however, ... had not existed at all as nations before colonization, or they had not existed within the post-colonial borders."[1]
Most colonial and Soviet satellite borders were created either through conquest, negotiation between empires, or simply by administrative action,[2] with little or no regard for the social realities of those living in the areas.[3] Nevertheless, many of the leaders and governments of postcolonial and post-Soviet states have fought to keep the territorial boundaries created by past imperialist governments. As a result, a number of boundary conflicts have arisen within post-colonial and post-Soviet territories. Parties to these conflicts justify and legitimate their side's position, using different historical boundaries as evidence for their claims. For example, the Libya-Chad conflict involves a dispute over 114,000 square kilometers of territory, known as the Aouzou Strip.[4] Libya justifies its claims to this territory based on ancient historical boundaries, while Chad justifies its stance based on boundaries established during the colonial period.
Onaje Mu'id , MSW and CASAC (Credentialed Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Counselor) with the Practioners Research and Scholarship Institute (PRASI), calls for a plebiscite to determine the relationship people of African descent should have with the USA.
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Ethnic Rivalry/Group Status
Colonial and Soviet powers often created situations that encouraged ethnic rivalry. For example, when the Soviets took control of the Ferghana Valley in Central Asia, they created boundaries that separated members of the same ethnic group (i.e. the Tajiks) into different multiethnic regions. "This enabled the Soviet authorities to continuously be called upon by the people of the region to help them manage conflicts that were bound to emerge as a result of these artificial divisions."[5] European and Soviet imperialists also sometimes favored one ethnic or religious group over other groups in the region. This practice of favoring one group, or of giving one group a higher status in colonial society, created and promoted inter-group rivalries.
The conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots has its roots in ethnic rivalry encouraged during British colonial rule. During this time, Turkish and Greek populations were often played against one another as a means of maintaining control on the island. For example, as Greek Cypriots pushed for self-rule, the British encouraged Turkish Cypriots to actively oppose them. By the time the British pulled out of Cyprus in 1960, they had helped cleave deep divisions between the Greek and Turkish populations. The new independent nation, equally ruled by Greeks and Turks, soon was embroiled in ethnic conflict. Greek Cypriots wanted the entire island to become part of Greece, while Turkish Cypriots wanted the northern part of the island to become an independent Turkish state. Consequently, hostilities between the two groups escalated to the point of violence. Decades later, ethnic rivalries that were encouraged during British rule, continue to impact the people of Cyprus as violence between Greeks and Turks continues to periodical erupt on the island state.
Unequal Distribution of Resources
The practice of favoring one ethnic, religious, racial, or other cultural group over others in colonial society, or of giving them a higher status, helped to promote inter-group rivalries, and often contributed to the unequal distribution of resources. Favored or privileged groups had access to, or control of, important resources that allowed them to enrich their members, at the expense of nonmembers. For example, under Soviet rule the elite of the northern province of Leninabad (now the province of Sugd in Tajikistan) were given almost exclusive access to governmental positions. As a result of their control of governmental policies, they sent a disproportionate share of the country's development and industry to this northern sector. The consequence of this action was that by 1992, over half of the country's wealth had been distributed to this one province.[6]
Today, many post-colonial and post-Soviet states continue the practice of favoring one group over others, whether it be a minority European settler population (as in South Africa), a minority European alliance group (e.g., Lebanon, Syria, Rwanda, Burundi) or an internal ethnic group (e.g., India).[7] As a result, we see numerous conflicts being caused in part, by dominant groups enacting and enforcing governmental, economic, political, and other social policies that distribute resources unequally among their nation's members.
Sri Lanka is an example of how the unequal distribution of wealth during colonial times, continues to affect ethnic relations today. Under colonial rule, Tamils, because of their higher rate of English-language skills, had easier access to higher education than did the Sinhalese. The better educated Tamil, thus dominated governmental and academic jobs, especially in the fields of medicine, science, and engineering. After independence, the Sinhalese majority implemented changes in the state's university admission policy that gave them an advantage in gaining access to higher education, specifically to science admissions. This policy resulted in a marked increase of Sinhalese working in the fields of medicine, science, and engineering, and a clear decline of Tamils. Today, as the admission policy to higher education is more equitable than in the past, the animosity created by first, colonial, and then post-colonial policies that promoted unequal access to education and thus, jobs, continues to breed distrust and conflict in the region.
Mohammed Abu-Nimer discusses the suspicion Muslims have about Northern and Western peacebuilders, which derives from colonization and occupation.
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Human Rights
The status, privilege, and wealth of colonial and Soviet ruling populations were often maintained and upheld through the use of policies that violated the human rights of those living in the colonized areas. Unjust policies subjected colonized populations to the loss of their lands, resources, cultural or religious identities, and sometimes even their lives. Examples of these brutal policies include slavery (e.g., British-controlled West Indies), apartheid (e.g., South Africa), and mass murder (e.g., the Incas of Peru, Aborigines of Australia, Hungarians after the 1956 uprising).
Today, many post-colonial and post-Soviet governments have adopted unjust colonial practices and policies as a means to preserve their dominant status. Rights with regards to traditional lands, resources, and cultural language are denied to many populations, as groups that were marginalized under colonial occupation continue to be marginalized under postcolonial governments, most notably indigenous populations such as in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, the Ashaninka of Peru, and the indigenous peoples of West Papua. Human-rights violations, including horrific events of mass murder and genocide, can be found in postcolonial and post-Soviet states such as Cambodia, Rwanda, Kosovo, El Salvador, and South Africa.
Lack of Governmental Institutions, Skills, and Experience
For the most part, colonial and Soviet satellite societies were repressive and undemocratic in nature. Domestic governmental systems and structures were controlled and operated either from abroad or by a select domestic, privileged group. Consequently, when liberation came, these states lacked the internal structures, institutions, and 1egalitarian way of thinking needed to create good governance systems. The result is that many postcolonial and post-Soviet states, although independent, are still ruled by repressive and restrictive regimes. For example, Melber (2002) states, "(t)he social transformation processes in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa can at best be characterized as a transition from controlled change to changed control."[8]
Conclusion
Intractable conflicts are found in many areas that were once colonized or controlled by Western European or Soviet powers such as Africa, the Balkans, and Southeast Asia. Most of these conflicts such as the one in Kashmir, Chechnya, and Cyprus are large and complex, and involve multiple issues ranging from human rights to good governance. Imperialist practices and policies, especially those concerning boundaries, ethnic rivalry, the uneven distribution of resources, human-rights violations, and lack of good governance can be found at the heart of protracted problems. For this reason, it is vital that those wishing to transform or resolve protracted conflict, acknowledge the past, and take into account the effects past imperialist policies continue to have on today's post-colonial and post-Soviet societies.
[1] Mark N. Katz. "Collapsed Empires." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict, ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Olser Hampson and Pamela Aall, 25-37. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996, p. 29.
[2] Mark N. Katz. "Collapsed Empires." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict, ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Olser Hampson and Pamela Aall, 25-37. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996.
[3] Mark N. Katz. "Collapsed Empires." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict, ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Olser Hampson and Pamela Aall, 25-37. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996.
[4] Posthumus, Bram. Chad and Libya : Good Neighbors, Enemies, Brothers - But Never Trusting Friends. Click here for document.
[5] Randa M.Slim "The Ferghana Valley: In the Midst of a Host of Crises." In Searching for Peace in Central and South Asia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities, eds. Monique Mekenkamp, Paul van Tongeren, and Hans van de Veen, p. 141-142
[6] John Schoeberlein, "Bones of Contention: Conflicts over Resources." In Searching for Peace in Central and South Asia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities, eds. Monique Mekenkamp, Paul van Tongeren, and Hans van de Veen, p. 88.
[7] Mark N. Katz, "Collapsed Empires." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict, ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Olser Hampson and Pamela Aall, 25-37. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996.
[8] Henning Melber, "Liberation without Democracy? Flaws of Post-Colonial Systems in Southern Africa" http://www.dse.de/zeitschr/de102-7.htm 2002.
Use the following to cite this article:
Marker, Sandra. "Effects of Colonization." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: November 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/post-colonial/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Contemporary Postcolonial & Postimperial Literature in English.
Available at: http://www.postcolonialweb.org/.
This website offers access to an array of resources on postcolonialism and postimperialism. There are many different sections including some on specific formerly-colonized nations, and others on history, politics, religion, postcolonial theory, gender issues, diasporas, and other academic resources on the subject. This site is essentially a storehouse of information on postcolonial studies. It has a particular concentration on the following world regions/nations: Africa, Australia, India, Singapore, New Zealand, Canada, Caribbean, and United Kingdom.
Jorgenson, Bent D. "Ethnic Boundaries and the Margins of the Margin: In a Postcolonial and Conflict Resolution Perspective." , December 1997
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/pcs/jorgens.html.
This essay describes ethnic boundaries and explores how they are viewed by two different theoretical fields, postcolonialism and conflict resolution.
Tishkov, Valery. "History and Legacies of the USSR: The Demise of a Multiethnic Experiment." Searching for Peace in Europe and Eurasia , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
In spite of being relatively peaceful, the dissolution of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics generated a lot of social and ethnic tension as well as violent clashes and internal wars. What was the nature of this multiethnic state and of the Soviet ethnic engineering, and what were the reasons for the breakup? What are the legacies of the USSR that embedded painful memories, old and new cleavages, and potential conflict? - Abstract
Carey, Henry F. "The Postcolonial State and the Protection of Human Rights." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 22, No. 1 & 2 , 2002
Available at: http://www.cssaame.com/issues/22/Carey.pdf.
This essay examines the human rights records of postcolonial states, in its effort to find out if there are important connections between their past colonial heritage, and present day human rights practices.
Offline (Print) Sources
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. New York: Routledge, April 1998.
This introductory text explores the historical aspects and theoretical concepts associated with colonial and post-colonial studies. The author discusses the key characteristics of the ideologies and history of colonialism, the relationship of colonial discourse to literature, challenges to colonialism, and recent developments in post-colonial theories and histories in the writings of contemporary theorists.
Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism, Reprint Edition. New York: Vintage Books, June 1994.
This is a foundational work in the field of post-colonial studies, dealing more with the literary aspect of the field. In the book, well-known scholar Edward Said, traces themes in 19th and 20th century literature as well as modern mass media, which demonstrate how such outlets have served as tools for dominating other cultures. The work shows how cultures can be dominated by words, and also how colonized cultures can be liberated by reviving old voices or developing new voices for the future.
Ashcroft, Bill . Post-Colonial Transformation. London: Routledge, January 1, 2001.
This book uses new theories to examine how colonial legacies have impacted and transformed post-colonial societies. Click here for more info.
Ghandi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, April 15, 1998.
"This is the first book of its kind to clearly map out the field of postcolonialism in its own terms. The book provides an overview of postcolonialism's pervasiveness in the academy, and lucidly illustrates the debates about the often conflicting consensus regarding the proper content, scope and relevance of its concerns. The book also elaborates on the themes and issues that have engaged the attention of postcolonial critics. From its influence in Marxism and poststructuralism, from the work of Edward Said to Salman Rushdie, from feminist imperialism to globalization and hybridity, Gandhi demonstrates the ethical concern that postcolonial theory can offer: how to take into account diversity without erasing distinct diasporas of difference." -From Publisher
Griffiths, Gareth, Helen Tiffen and Bill Ashcroft, eds. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, March 1995.
This volume includes a comprehensive set of nearly ninety key texts in post-colonial theory and criticism. The essays were compiled in order to introduce readers to the major issues and debates in the field of post-colonial studies. The essays cover a wide variety of concerns regarding the legacy and consequences of colonialism.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Havermans, Jos. "Central African Republic: Ethnic Strife in a Democratic Setting." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the struggle of the Central African Republic and its ethnic strife. The paper details efforts at peacemaking, which have primarily been led by the United Nations delegates and peacekeeping troops. The essay also examines how the Central African Republic's colonial past, has influenced and affected many of its current problems.
Posthumus, Bram. "Chad: Can the Cycle of War be Broken?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about war in Chad that discusses the never-ending cycle that may one day be broken. It was originally published in the book Searching for Peace in Africa edited by Monique Mekenkamp, Paul van Tongren and Hans van de Veen and published by the European Platform for Conflict Prevention and Transformation.
Achodo, Charles Chidi. Conflict and Post Conflict: Patterns, Issues, Impact on Economic Development and Povert Cycle in Countries in Africa.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses the difficulty that many African nations have experienced as they have tried to transition from colonial rule to independent nation-states. In addition to covering the general causes of many post-colonial African conflicts, the paper also discusses how the potential for economic development in Africa is affected by conflict.
Democracy and Deep-Rooted Conflict Case Study: Sri Lanka.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is a case study of Sri Lanka featured in Democracy and Deep-rooted Conflict edited by Peter Harris and Ben Reilly. The study examines the Tamil-Sinhalese conflict, which involved some of the most combustible factors in ethnic relations: language, religion, long historical memories of tensions and conflict, and a prolonged separatist agitation. The analysis offers a discussion of efforts at conflict management including employment, education, land distribution, the devolution of power and the external influences of India.
Exiting the Communist Brotherhood: Ethnic Kin-Group Conflicts in Transitioning Southeast Europe States.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This essay examines the role the collapse of the Soviet Union and nationalism has played in Eastern European conflicts.
Mekenkamp, Monique. "Guinea-Bissau: Democracy Restored by a Military Coup?." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article describes the post-colonial power struggle in Guinea-Bissau and debates whether or not the nation's democracy was restored by a military coup.
Rodrigues, Maria Guadalupe Moog. "Indigenous Rights in Democratic Brazil." Human Rights Quarterly , May 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is a historical overview and analysis of the rights of indigenous people in Brazil. Beginning with colonial policies, the author describes how indigenous rights have progressed.
Melber, Henning. "Liberation Without Democracy? Flaws of Post-Colonial Systems in Southern Africa." Development and Cooperation, No. 1 , 2002
Available at: http://www.inwent.org/E+Z/1997-2002/de102-7.htm.
This essay explains how some post-colonial societies in Africa are adopting the same undemocratic governmental structures and strategies that were used during the colonial era.
Posthumus, Bram. "Mali: Successful Mediation Effort Could Lead to Lasting Peace." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlies the dynamics of the rebel insurgency in Mali in the early 1990s and the subsequent peace efforts that took place. It is noted that the mediated peace settlement has been successful mostly because of inclusive stakeholder representation and participation.
"Moldova Narrative: Origins and Background Conditions of the Moldova / Niester Conflict." Conflict Early Warning Systems (CEWS), 1900.
Available at: http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Moldova/moldova.pdf.
This essays offers insights into the Moldova Niester conflict by: providing historical facts about the area; explaining the multi-dimensional cultural and social aspects of the conflict; and detailing the emergence of the conflict following independence from Soviet Russia.
Posthumus, Bram. "Mozambique: An End to an Imported War." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines the conflict and peace process in Mozambique, particularly the process of ending guerilla warfare and establishing stable peace in that country.
Posthumus, Bram. "Niger: A Long History, a Brief Conflict, an Open Future." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article profiles the conflict in Niger between the nomadic Tuareg people and state authorities, which is rooted in structural changes made during the colonial era as well as post-colonial repression.
Ekeh, Raphael Chirna. "Nigeria: Aguleri-Umuleri Conflict - The Theatre of Fratricidal War." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the land dispute in Nigeria between the Aguleri and the Umuleri, which is rooted in the pre-colonial social dynamics of the region.
Posthumus, Bram. "Senegal: An End in Sight to Casamance Violence?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the conflict between Casamance, the southern, geographically distinct part of Senegal, and the Senegalese government. People in the region of Casamance have rebelled against the government due to feeling short-changed by the State. Much of the conflict management efforts there have revolved around containing the importation and distribution of small arms.
Posthumus, Bram. "Sierra Leone: Real Battles Lie Ahead." , 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the history of violent conflict in Sierra Leone, including its connection to events in neighboring Liberia. The author outlines the various efforts that have been made to bring peace to the west African nation.
Galama, Anneke. "The Comores: Independence or Back to Colonial Times?." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the post-colonial struggle for political and economic stability in the Republic of Grande Comoros, an island group off the coast of Mozambique. A Frecn colony until 1975, the Cmores is one of Africa's poorest nations and has struggled with many coup attempts and violent conflict for decades.
The Social Cost of Conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Crisis, Population, Environment.
Available at: http://www.afrika.no/Detailed/2673.html.
This article discusses the trials of the post-colonial transition in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The piece examines the perception of troubled post-colonial nation-states, simply as failed political entities. Instead, the multi-dimensional causes of the Congolese crisis are outlined, particularly the legacy of the Belgian colonial system. The piece covers much regarding the conflicts that have occurred in DRC since its independence in 1960, as well as prospects for the future.
Kerslake, Lorraine. "Two Equal and Sovereign People - The Cyprus Question: A result of Colonialism?." , 1900
Available at: http://www.skynet.ie/~peacesoc/read/cyprus.html.
This article looks at Cyprus's past colonial history and future position with the European Union.
Leenders, Reinoud. "Western Sahara: Africa's Last Colony." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper details the turbulent history of Western Sahara, which still struggles for clear-cut independence in the wake of its colonial history. Morocco has militarily dominated the territory since the end of colonial rule, but no official agreement has ever been reached.
Offline (Print) Sources
Ciment, James. Angola and Mozambique: Postcolonial Wars in Southern Africa. New York: Facts on File, Inc., April 1997.
This work covers the conflicts in Angola and Mozambique, which followed trhese countries' liberation from colonial rule in 1975. Both nations have been devastated by conflict for decades. This work outlines the complex historical, political, and cultural context of the conflicts, explains key issues, identifies players and assesses prospects for the future.
Katz, Mark N. "Collapsed Empires." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Aall, Pamela, ed. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, January 1, 1996.
This chapter In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict, edited by Chester A. Crocker, Fen Olser Hampson, and Pamela Aall, discusses the impact the dissolution of the Soviet Union has had on international relations, particularly Eastern Europe.
Bagu, Chom. "Mitigating Conflict and Eradicating Poverty in Nigeria's North Central Region: A Critical Assessment of Current Efforts." Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 1:1, 2002.
The author argues that Nigeria should use conflict prevention methods to combat not only situations of inter-group conflict, but also of social conflict such as poverty.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
A Republic Gone Mad: Rwanda 1894-1994. Directed and/or Produced by: de Heusch, Luc and Kathleen de Bethune. First Run Icarus Films. 1996.
This film delves into the history of Rwanda to tell the story of how colonization impacted ethnic relations between the Hutu and Tutsi. Click here for more info.
Afrique, je te plumerai / Africa, I Will Fleece You . Directed and/or Produced by: Teno, Jean-Marie. California Newsreel. 1992.
This film focuses on Cameroon and looks at the impacts colonial policies continue to have on independent African countries. Click here for more info.
Daresalam / Let There Be Peace. Directed and/or Produced by: Coelo, Issa Serge . California Newsreel. 2000.
By focusing on a number of post-colonial Africa civil wars, this film elicits the core causes associated with them. Click here for more info.
Division of Hearts. Directed and/or Produced by: Khanna, Satti and Peter Chappell. First Run Icarus Films. 1987.
This film documents the voices of Pakistanis, Indians, and Bangladeshis as they recount want occurred when Britain subdivided colonial India, and the impact this event is still having on their lives, forty years later.
Click here for more info.
Five Centuries Later . Directed and/or Produced by: Gutierrez, German. First Run Icarus Films. 1992.
This film offers a look at the effects colonization continues to have on the indigenous populations of Central American, five hundred years after Western Europeans took control of this area. Click here for more info.
The Last Colonials. Directed and/or Produced by: Michel, Thierry. First Run Icarus Films. 1995.
This film takes a revealing visit to Zaire just after its independence. It focuses on white land owners who believe that independence was a mistake, and that their former colonialist way of life will be restored.
Click here for more info.
Yugoslavia: Origins of a War . Directed and/or Produced by: Talczewski, Christophe. First Run Icarus Films. 1992.
This film highlights historical factors and key issues associated with conflicts in the former Yugoslavia. Click here for more info.
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