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In the West, the earliest use of the term "scapegoat" can be found in early Judaic ritual described in the Bible's Book of Leviticus. The passage goes something like this:
"On the Day of Atonement a live goat was chosen by lot. The high priest, robed in linen garments, laid both his hands on the goat's head, and confessed over it the iniquities of the children of Israel. The sins of the people thus symbolically transferred to the beast, it was taken out into the wilderness and let go. The people felt purged, and for the time being, guiltless."[1]
The term scapegoat, however, has evolved to refer to individuals or peoples who are symbolically or concretely made to bear responsibility for the faults or problems of others. For individuals, scapegoating is a psychological defense mechanism of denial through projecting responsibility and blame on others.[2] It allows the perpetrator to eliminate negative feelings about him or herself and provides a sense of gratification. Furthermore, it justifies the self-righteous discharge of aggression. For the perpetrator, it can provide a firm separation between good and bad.[3] Others describe scapegoaters as insecure, motivated to raise their own status, particularly relative to the target.[4] Having firmly convinced oneself that the other is responsible, it seems only logical to displace punishment as well.
It is unlikely, however, that this psychological explanation directly translates to the sociological level. At the group level, scapegoating does not reflect mass psychosis. At the same time, it is true that psychological issues may be involved for some group members and some may suffer from psychological problems.[5] The aggregating of individuals to produce scapegoating at the societal level appears to be a complicated process involving a number of personality types and psychological processes.[6] To put it simply, scapegoating involves the creation of a stark "us" vs. "them" dichotomy.[7]
Regardless of whether individual or group scapegoating, it typically is based on real social, political, ideological, cultural, or economic power struggles. [8] Scapegoats are frequently less powerful and more marginalized. This makes them easier targets. However, they need not be. Many of them are in fact privileged, at least in relative terms. The Jews throughout Europe, Chinese in Southeast Asia, or Koreans in inner city Los Angeles are but three examples of the latter. In each case, assertions of unfair advantage provide an explanation for the inferior economic position of others. This sentiment is often beneficial for political leaders who can deflect blame from their own shortcomings. For example, there is evidence that Indonesian government leaders and the military fueled anti-Chinese sentiment after the economic collapse in 1998.[9]
Scapegoating often becomes an important part of conflict. Once scapegoating is perceived to be successful in generating positive feelings in perpetrators, there is likely to be reluctance to give it up. The scapegoated provide a ready explanation for troubles. Therefore, there is relatively little incentive for the perpetrator to give it up. For the scapegoated, they are left with few good options: to flee, to assimilate, or to fight back.
[1] Gordon W. Allport, Nature of Prejudice, Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954, p. 244.
[2] Richard Landes, "Scapegoating," Encyclopedia of Social History, Peter N. Stearn, ed., (New York: Garland Pub. Inc., 1994).
[3] S. Scheidlinger. On Scapegoating. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy. 32, 1982. p131-142.
[4] C. Allen Carter. Kenneth Burke and the Scapegoat Process. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
[5] Michael Billig, Fascists: A Social Psychological View of the National Front, (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978), pp. 313-316.
[6] Political Research Associates. "The Scapegoat" http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/scapegoating-02.html#P20_4038
[7] Allport, pp. 29-67.
[8] Lise Noel, Intolerance, A General Survey, (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), pp. 149-164.; Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, The Anatomy of Prejudices, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 353-365.
[9] Human Rights Watch. 1998. "Indonesia Alert"http://www.hrw.org/press98/feb/indo- al1.htm
Use the following to cite this article:
Brahm, Eric. "Scapegoating." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2004 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/scapegoating/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Public Eye. Dynamics of Bigotry.
Available at: http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/DynamicsTOC.html.
This report discusses conspiracy thought. It is often driven by scapegoating, which is central to the analysis. It has significant discussion of the origins of scapegoating, its psychological and social foundations.
Scapegoating Research & Remedies.
Available at: http://www.scapegoat.demon.co.uk/index.htm.
?The Scapegoat Society is a resource both for people who have experienced being a scapegoat, and for people working professionally to resolve scapegoat problems?. The work of The Scapegoat Society [non-profit] is to raise consciousness about scapegoating and its dynamics so as to make it easier to resist and root out.?
Offline (Print) Sources
Dworkin, Andrea. Scapegoat: The Jews Israel, and Womens's Liberation. New York: Free Press, 2000.
Throughout history, argues brilliant feminist critic Andrea Dworkin, women and Jews have been stigmatized as society's scapegoats. In this stunning and provocative book, Dworkin brings her rigorous intellect to bear on the dynamics of scapegoating. Drawing upon history, philosophy, literature, and politics, she creates a terrifying picture of the workings of misogyny and anti-Semitism in the last millennium. With examples that range from the Inquisition to the Nazis, Dworkin illustrates how and why women and Jews have been scapegoated and compares the civil inequality, prejudices, and stereotypes that have framed identity for both groups. Taking the state of Israel as a paradigm, Dworkin traces the growth of male dominance in societies both old and new -- resulting in the subordination of women and a racial or ethnic "other." - Amazon
Pillari, Vimala. Scapegoating in families: intergenerational patterns of physical and emotional abuse. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1991.
This book outlines the dynamics of scapegoating in families: how it works and why it happens. In plain language, it provides a number of case studies to demonsrate the dynamics of this pattern. The text also includes discussion after each case so readers can clearly see the larger point about the dynamic illustrated in the example.
Dyckman, John M. and Joseph A. Cutler. Scapegoats at Work: Taking the Bull's-Eye Off Your Back. Praeger Publishers , 2003.
Scapegoating is the identification--then blaming and punishing--of individuals for problems that rightly belong to the larger organization. Dyckman and Cutler offer a survival guide for people affected by workplace scapegoating. They show us the social and psychological roots of scapegoating and explain how the individual and system act together to enable this human drama. This book shows how both individuals and the workplace system contribute to scapegoating. This book follows the career of the scapegoat and presents ways that the pattern can be interrupted. Strategies to help remove the bull's-eye include understanding how to recognize scapegoating and break behavioral patterns that make one an attractive target. Also provided is information for workers and managers who wish to develop cooperative means of dealing with individual differences, creating a work environment that is more humane and efficient. People who feel victimized by work-related scapegoating will find this book of great interest, as will professionals working in human resources or employee assistance programs. It will help managers who have "problem employees" and want to improve workflow, reduce turnover, and reduce workers' comp claims. This clear and concise compendium of examples, tips, and strategies will also appeal to mediators, shop stewards, union officials, psychotherapists, and occupational medicine specialists. - from the Publisher
Douglas, Tom. Scapegoats: Transferring Blame. New York: Routledge, 1995.
In Scapegoats, Tom Douglas examines the process of scapegoating from all perspectives, tracing its development from earliest times as rite of atonement to the modern forms of the avoidance of blame and the victimization of innocents. The theories and explanations which social scientists have evolved to define scapegoating as a form of social behavior are examined and the processes of its management and resolution are covered in detail. Douglas analyzes the distinction between the "rational"--deliberate and intentional victimization--and the "irrational"--response to frustration of unknown or wrongly attributed causes--forms of scapegoating in detail. - Amazon.com
Girard, Rene. The Scapegoat. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
Human beings, according to French thinker Rene Girard, are fundamentally imitative creatures. We copy each other's desires, and are in perpetual conflict with one another over the objects of our desire. In early human communities, this conflict created permanent threat of violence. The only way the violence would end was for it to be directed against a single victim, and it was around the victims of collective ciolence that Girard thinks that cultures first formed. Biblical religion, according to Girard, has attempted to overcome this historic plight. From the unjust murder of Abel by his brother Cain, to the crucifixion of Christ, the Bible reveals the innocence of the victim. It is on this revelation that modern society unquietly rests. - Amazon
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